Assimilation of educational content aimed at gaining competence requires changes in the educational process. Education should improve personal qualities of students while teaching new material. In the developed countries, teaching and learning process aims at the development of practical skills. In the developing states, such as Kazakhstan, educational modernization continues and implies student-centered learning. This article deals with the development of educational competencies through active approach to the content of modern Kazakhstani education, research opinions on student training skills and interconnection between personal skills and competence of students.
Assimilation of educational content by the students presents a complex process. Because of this process, students expand their knowledge, develop their abilities and skills and thus competence is formed through the development of relevant knowledge and skills. Keywords: Educational activity of students, activity means, integration of learning, competence building, innovative education. This article addresses the problems of tectonic zoning and determination of geodynamical nature of the formation of jointed tectonic structures within the North Caspian oil and gas basin, represented by Caspian Depression of Russian platform of East European Pre-Cambrian Craton and plate ancient Precambrian Platform stabilization and Turan (Scythian-Turan) plate of Cimmerian (Mesozoic) folding. It is stated that the principle of zoning according to time of the final phase of folding in practice is used more often, although this principle was established by geosynclines concept, which was a major paradigm of fixism geotectonic school. It is noted that the main reason of the demand for the fixists principle of zoning, while ignoring main provisions of a more progressive mobilistic concept of plate tectonics, is explained by the inability to discover the interdependence of folded structures of the regional continents formation and isometric forms with closing of ocean basins, comparable with modern (Mesozoic-Cainozoic) oceans. Although almost all the researchers on this region associates the establishment of the abovementioned plate structures with the development of a hypothetical large oceans of the Paleozoic – Paleo-Uralian ocean and Paleo-Tethys Ocean, respectively.
English figures; if any single Russian writer deserves such selectively. 'father of Russian literature' and of the modern Russian literary language, whose ix. Eighteenth century, however, at a time of diplomatic rapprochement, Russia. Fedorov's ideas, Dostoevsky declared that he had never read anything more logical.
The article specifies the divisiveness of such an interpretation, as the results of research allow us to defend the idea of the regional character of the plate tectonics in pre-Mesozoic stage of development of the planet. From such point of view, the Paleozoic history of the formation of Caspian Depression platform cover and folded basement of Turan (Scythian-Turan) plate cannot be associated with the global plate tectonics. Keywords: North Caspian; geotectonic zoning; ancient platform; Caspian Depression; young platform.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan had to re-build their bilateral relations, and today this process continues. Both countries face up to a number of objective difficulties, such as crisis and the need to develop new foreign and domestic policy doctrines. Nevertheless, several bilateral agreements show the governments’ desire to establish closer co-operation and to look for new integration method.
Cross-border cooperation presents one of these methods. This paper deals with specific features of interterritorial and cross-border cooperation between border regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation, basic problems of cross-border cooperation in these regions. The authors identified the most important areas of further cross-border and interregional cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia. Relevant legal documents show intense cooperation development between the countries; this is confirmed by the participation of Kazakhstan and Russia in a number of international organizations, in particular, SCO, CIS, and the Customs Union.
Development of cross-border cooperation presents a new stage in bilateral relations. Currently, the main difficulties that hinder such cooperation include inadequate legal framework, which requires improvement in order to meet the requirements of bilateral relations, the need to extend state funding, as well as the need to attract foreign investment. Keywords: Transfrontier cooperation, region, international cooperation, interregional cooperation, cross-border cooperation. Agricultural problems associated with prospects of the rural population and agriculture in general have recently become an important factor in the modern economic policy development.
The urgency of finding ways to improve the labor resource efficiency in agriculture pursuant to the state tasks is determined by the need to restore the agricultural potential of the country and to keep the state's role in the development of agricultural production. Agriculture requires reformation; it is necessary to change the approach to organizing labor.
The main negative factors that affect the agricultural industry are as follows: demographic factor – the younger generation is moving to the cities; ecological factor – the difficult ecological situation affects both the nature and people; natural and climatic factors – changes in weather conditions. The research analyzes the factors that have a direct impact on labor effectiveness: natural, technological, and technical. The experience of experts and researchers is presented and generalized. The results note that in order to improve the effectiveness of labor in the agricultural sector, it is necessary to develop the industry and create new jobs. The main role in the agricultural reform should be played by the government, which should modify the legal framework, including the labor laws.
Keywords: Human resources, agriculture, sustainable development, human resource management, potential level, region. Phraseology is one of the basic and most important objects of study in cognitive linguistics. The article deals with verbal fixed phrases in their correlation with the cognitive structure of knowledge – a concept. The used definitional analysis method to identify the basic notions of the conceptual content of the concept of blame and basic representative lexical units of the analyzed concept. They also applied component analysis method to identify the semantic features of French phraseological units, containing the concept of blame, as well as to analyze the relatedness of phraseological units to the studied concept. The methods revealed that basic understanding of the “blame” concept demonstrates the direct relationship of this concept with the action.
Therefore, it is presented mainly in verbal phrase ologisms. Based on the used methods, the researchers identified a set of basic representative lexical units of the analyzed concept: a reprimand, reproach, criticism, disapproval. Component analysis of verbal phraseological units (204 units) within the concept of blame made it possible to identify the lexical sets, reflecting the denotative situation and denotative cause of the blame process: “Body Parts”, “Food”, “Flora and fauna”, “Household units”.
Keywords: Verbal phraseological units, “blame” concept, semantic features, dictionary definition. The article presents the results of researches aimed at the creation of automated workplaces for railway transport specialists with the help of intelligent information systems. The analysis of tendencies of information technologies development in the transport network was conducted. It was determined that the most effective approach is to create an information transport architecture, together with the quality management system of transport services. Automated workplace for specialists of rail transport with this approach is synergistically formed as a local information space and process automation as part of a single intelligent information transport space in accordance with the strategy of transport development, management and information technologies. This approach allows standardizing technological processes of traffic, identifying points of risk of occurrence of security threats and information loss, forming a dynamic information environment decision support.
The main problems of the effective operation of intelligent transport systems in general and each automated sites are information security, reliability of information, the stability of data transmission systems, and qualification of the personnel. The basis for the formation of local computer workstations are optional models of technological processes, taking into account the large number of situations on the railway transport options. The paper presents an example of modeling operations and assessment of the costs of the working time of commodity cashier. An analysis found fotochronometry the most appropriate for the study, which serves as the basis for action photography worker per shift with simultaneous maintenance of chronometry observations lasting one or another of his actions.
The mathematical apparatus of research, calculation and optimization of logical systems is a simulation pertaining to the theory of probability, mathematical statistics and represented in terms of queuing theory. The proposed changes to modernize the automated place for commercial cashier can be embedded in the enterprises of the railway of Kazakhstan. Keywords: rail transport, intelligent transport systems, automated workstation, information security, Republic of Kazakhstan. The paper presents the results of a study of existing models and mathematical representations of a range of truly peristaltic multiphase micro-pumps with a piezoelectric actuator (piezo drive). Piezo drives with different types of substrates use vertical movements at deformation of individual piezoelectric elements, which define device performance. The dependences of the maximum micro-pump output pressure from the difference between the phases of voltage drives are established.
The dynamic properties of piezo drive, deformation forms of its individual piezoelectric elements were defined by theoretical and experimental methods. The dependence of micro-pump output pressure from the phase frequency and difference was determined. Keywords: Peristaltic piezo micro-pumps, signaling, deformation of piezo drive, piezoelectric actuator, bending vibrations. Au, A.K., Lee, W., & Folch, A. Mail-order microfluidics: evaluation of stereolithography for the production of microfluidic devices. Lab on a Chip, 14(7), 1294-1301.
Beckers, G., & Dehez, B. Design and modeling of a quasi-static peristaltic piezoelectric micropump. International Conference. IEEE - Electrical Machines and Systems (ICEMS), 1301-1306.
On the Pressurization Characteristics of Small Piezoelectric Hydraulic Pump for Brake System. Journal of the Korean Society for Aeronautical & Space Sciences, 43(11), 963-970. On the Performance Test of the Piezoelectric-Hydraulic Pump. Journal of the Korean Society for Aeronautical & Space Sciences, 43(9), 822-829. Design and modeling of piezoelectric pump for microfluid devices. Ferroelectrics, 378(1), 92-100.
Laser, D.J., & Santiago, J.G. A review of micropumps. Journal of micromechanics and microengineering, 14(6), R35. Nguyen, N.T., & Wereley S.T. Fundamentals and Applications of Microfluidics. Artech House.
Design of a Piezoelectric Pump Using No Physically Moving Components. Ferroelectrics, 378(1), 144-151. Elastic string check valves can efficiently heighten the piezoelectric pump’s working frequency. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 244, 126-132. Schilling, K.M. Fully enclosed microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. Analytical chemistry, 84(3), 1579-1585.
Valdovinos, J. Evaluating piezoelectric hydraulic pumps as drivers for pulsatile pediatric ventricular assist devices. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 104476.
Vasuk, B., Sathiya, S., & Suresh, K. A new piezoelectric laminated cantilever resonance based hydraulic pump. IEEE - Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), 197-201.
Zasukhin, O.N., & Bulat, P.V. Self-Oscillation of Shock Wave Structures. IEJME - Mathematics Education, 11(5), 1023-1032 8 Meruert A. Akimbekova, Saida A. Akimbekova, Zholdasbek M. Nusenov & Fatima A.
Tlegenova pp. 9733-9740 Article Number: ijese.2016.691 Published Online: November 01, 2016 Article Views: 618 Article Download: 1100.
Matters on compensation of moral damage are one of the most controversial and topical in enforcement practice for today, especially in developing countries, such as Kazakhstan. This is because the matters of protection of the individual, his moral rights and benefits are the same priority as the protection of property rights.
In this paper, the authors conducted an attempt to study the matters of enforcement practice related to the definition of criteria for compensation of moral damage, caused by the offenses. The article made a comparative analysis of some aspects of the legislation Institute on arising from the offense (torts) liability for compensation of moral damage, attention is drawn to the different definition of the term 'moral damage'. As the regulatory basis were used the legislative acts of Russia, Kazakhstan and Germany. The results substantiate the necessity of reforming the legislative basis of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the sphere of regulation of the compensation of moral damage. Moral hazard is defined as 'moral and physical suffering', which did not disclose fully the term and can be interpreted in different ways.
Therefore, it is necessary to consolidate at the legislative level the full concept of 'moral damage', as well as to develop a single system for calculating it. Keywords: Moral damage, the tortfeasor, a criminal offense, mental suffering, physical suffering. Article 1382 of the Civil Code of France. Online.zakon.kz/Document/?docid=30006352 ( g). Civil code of Germany, 2-nd ed.
Wolters Kluwer, 322. Moral Damages in Investment Arbitration: A Role for Human Rights? Journal of International Dispute Settlement, 3(2), 371-407. Erdelevsky, A.M. Moral damage: analysis and commentary of legislation and judicial practice. Erdelevsky, A.M. Moral damage: analysis and commentary of legislation and judicial practice.
Wolters Kluwer, 103. Generalization of court practice on examination of civil cases involving claims of compensation for moral damage in monetary terms. Ibrayeva, A., Abdikarim, Y., & Alimbekova, M. The Legal Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan: New Priorities and Succession. World Applied Sciences Journal, 29(8), 1071-1074. Jagusch, S., & Sebastian, T.
Moral Damages in Investment Arbitration: Punitive Damages in Compensatory Clothing? Arbitration International, 29(1), 45-62. Normative Resolution of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On application of the legislation by the courts on compensation of moral damage, 3. Paragraph 1, Article 1 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Adopted at the national referendum in August, 30.
Info Paragraph 2, Article 115 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. December, 27. Paragraph 1, Article 1 of the Civil Code, chapters 19-21 of the Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On Marriage (Matrimony) and Family. December, 26.
Docid = 31102748 Paragraph 3, Article 115 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On Marriage (Matrimony) and Family. Paragraph 4, Article 116 of the Civil Code 5) Paragraph 2, Article 1040 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On Marriage (Matrimony) and Family. Paragraph 1, Article 951 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
On Marriage (Matrimony) and Family. Paragraph 823 of the Civil Code of Germany. Parfilova, G.G.
Pushkina, T.N. The criteria for determining the amount of moral damage as the main problem of civil-law institute of moral damage. Udmurt University Journal Economics and Law Serie, 1, 171. Moral Damages in Brazilian Law. Panorama of Brazilian Law, 1, 1, 121-127.
How to compensate the moral damage to rich and poor? Russian Justice, 12, 25. Vorobiev, S.M.
Moral damage as one of the consequences of property crimes. Lawyer, 3, 9. 9 Alexander I. Goncharov, Agnessa O. Inshakova, Olesya P. Kazachenok & Ilya S.
9741-9752 Article Number: ijese.2016.692 Published Online: November 01, 2016 Article Views: 567 Article Download: 426. This research analyzes the illegal and unreasonable practice of court rulings that aim to accelerate the major construction of problematic long-delayed apartment blocks in the Russian Federation. The authors express their critical attitude to the widespread wrongful approach that violates the laws in effect and allows courts to apply branch-specific legal regulation to public relations, which should be regulated by different laws. The authors support the supremacy of law over the administrative and economic expedience, which often prevails in modern Russia, and analyze the legal status of the victims of unscrupulous real estate developers, including that of persons who took mortgage loans and bore additional costs due to increased interest rates, and the financial losses of banks that were forced to create additional reserves for potential losses from bad debts with security in the form of apartments in buildings, the construction of which was delayed indefinitely. Keywords: major construction, apartment block, unfinished apartment, homeowner association, urban planning law.
Filippov P.M., Inshakova A.O., and Goncharov A.I. Housing Law: a textbook. Moscow: Jurisprudence Publishing House.
Order of the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia dated No. 403 “On the Approval of the Criteria for Classifying Citizens, whose Funds Were Used to Construct Apartment Blocks and whose Rights Were Violated, as Aggrieved Persons, and the Rules for Registering Citizens, whose Funds Were Used to Construct Apartment Blocks and whose Rights Were Violated” // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. Housing Code of the Russian Federation dated No. 188-FZ (revised on ) // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. Government Decree dated No. 47 (revised on 25.3.2015, amended as of ) “On the Approval of the Provision for Recognizing Premises as Housing Accommodations, Recognizing Housing Accommodations as Unsuitable for Dwelling, and Recognizing an Apartment Block as Failing and Subject to Demolition or Reconstruction” // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No.
Urban Development Code of the Russian Federation dated No. 190-FZ (revised on ) (revised and extended, in force from ) // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. Government Decree dated No.
491 (revised on ) “On the Approval of Rules of Maintenance for Communal Property in an Apartment Block and Rules of Changing the Payment for the Maintenance and Repairs of Residential Accommodations in Case of Delivery of Service and Performance of Works for Management, Maintenance, and Repairs of Communal Property in an Apartment Block of Substandard Quality and (or) with Delays that Exceed the Set Duration” // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) dated No.
51-FZ (revised on ) // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. Ruling of the Krasnooktyabrskiy District Court of Volgograd on Case No. 2-4393 / 2015 dated November 30, 2015. Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part Two) dated No.
14-FZ (revised on ) // “Rossiyskaya Gazeta” (Russian Newspaper), No. 27, 10.2.1996. Financing of social housing stock in Russia and abroad // World Applied Sciences Journal. I., Polishchuk L., Peresetsky A. Collective management of residential housing in Russia: The importance of being social // Journal of Comparative Economics.
Housing the New Russia // Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews. Housing the New Russia //Housing Studies. Review: Housing the New Russia // Journal of Planning Education and Research. Housing the New Russia (Zavisca) // Anthropology of East Europe Review. K., Cherkovets M. Forecast of mortgage-lending development in Russia subject to socioeconomic factors //Studies on Russian Economic Development. Sarsengali A.
Abdymanapov, Aigul N. Toxanova, Alma H. Galiyeva, Ainur Sh. Abildina & Anar M. Development of Public-Private Partnership in the Republic of Kazakhstan. IEJME-Mathematics Education. Volume 11 Issue 5 (2016) pp.
1113-1126 Ulyanova O. A Research Methodology of the Housing Crisis in Modern Russia //World Applied Sciences Journal. Housing the new Russia. – Cornell University Press, 2012.
The ing-form, is built up by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb (e.g. Speak — speaking). In writing the following spelling rules should be observed: a) A mute -e at the end of the verb is dropped before the suffix -ing (e.g.
Close — closing, make — making). B) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g.
Cut — cutting, begin — beginning, prefer — preferring, occur — occurring), c) A final -I is always doubled in British English (e.g. Travel — travelling, quarrel — quarrelling). D) A final -y is preserved no matter what sound it is preceded by (e.g. Study — studying, stay — staying). E) A final ie changes into -y (e.g. Tie — tying, lie — lying).
The Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs in the following cases: 1) To express an action going on at the present moment, i.e. The moment of speaking. The precise time limits of the action are not known, its beginning and its end are not specified. The indication of time is not necessary in this case though occasionally such adverbial modifiers as now and at present are found. 'Do you know where Philip is?'
'I expect he is talking to Mother.' I asked: 'Is anything new happening?' 'Oh, hullo,' he said. 'Do you want to see me?' I'm looking for my father.' Tears flowed slowly down her cheeks. 'What are you crying for?'
The eggs are burning! The coffee is boiling over! Where is the large tray? Where do you keep things?'
Cried Adeline. 2) To express an action going on at the present period. In this case the precise time limits of the action are not known either. Besides, the action may or may not be going on at the actual moment of speaking. As in the previous case, indications of time are not necessary here either. But you've not been in England much lately. Public opinion is changing.
I must tell you about it. 'And what are you doing in Geneva?' 'I'm writing a play,' said Ashenden. The great detective has retired from business.
He is growing roses in a little cottage in Dorking. I stay indoors most of the time. I ' m catching up with my studies. They're getting ready to move to their new house. Sometimes this Present Continuous shows that for the time being a certain action happens to be the most important and characteristic occupation for its doer (for this see the last four examples above). Notice the phrase to be busy doing something. It is synonymous in meaning with the Present Continuous in the first and second cases of its use.
The phrase is very common in English. Father is busy cutting the grass in the garden. Nigel is busy getting himself into Parliament. 3) To express actions generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out the person's typical traits. Often the adverbial modifiers always and constantly are found in these sentences, e.g.
People are always blaming their circumstances for what they are. 'You're always showing off,' she said to her brother in a loud whisper. Her husband retorted: 'You're constantly complaining that you have too much to do.' The Present Continuous in this case imparts a subjective, emotionally coloured tone. When no emotional colouring is implied, the Present Indefinite is used to give an objective characteristic (see 'Verbs', § 10, b). Cf.: Old uncle Harry is always thinking he's going to be ruined.
You people always think I've a bag of money. Note the following sentence patterns, in which recurrent actions are made emotionally coloured by the use of the Present Continuous. E.g- I wonder if all grown-uppeople play in that childish way when nobody is looking? When Adeline is grinning we know she is happy. When I see him he is always eating something. 4) To express actions which will take place in the near future due to one's previous decision.
For that reason the action is regarded as something definitely settled. We usually find an indication of future time in this case (see also 'Verbs', § 47). 'I am sailing early next month,' he said. Are you dining out tonight? He is having a meeting with the men this afternoon. 'I'm staying the night at Green Street,' said Val.
As has been said above, the Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs. However, some stative verbs (see 'Verbs', § 2, 2) when they change their meaning can be used in the Continuous form. 'Are you seeing Clare tonight?' He said, 'I'm seeing you home.' 'Are you going in the water?'
'I'm seriously considering it.' Jane turned away. 'The thing to do,' she said, 'is to pay no attention to him. He is just being silly.' Notice that in cases like those above the verb to be is close to to behave in meaning. Special attention should be paid to the verb to have which in its original meaning 'to possess' does not admit of the continuous form.
Suddenly he came in and said: 'Have you a letter for me, postman?' But with a change of its meaning, the use of the continuous form becomes the rule if it is required by the sense. Namely, it occurs when to have is part of set phrases, as in: to have a bath, to have a good holiday, to have a party, to have a smoke, to have a walk, to have coffee, to have dinner, to have something done, to have to do something, to have trouble and the like.
'Where is Mr Franklin?' 'He's having a bath. He'll be right out.' I know you are having your difficulties. My village will be as pretty as a picture. Trees along the street. You see, I'm having them planted already.
Some of the other verbs included in the list of stative verbs may also be occasionally used in the continuous form. Then the actions indicated by these verbs express great intensity of feeling. 'You'll find it a great change to live in New York.'
'At the present time I'm hating it,' she said in an expressionless tone. 'Strange,' he said, 'how, when people are either very young or very old, they are always wanting to do something they should not do.' Dear Amy, I've settled in now and I am liking my new life very much. Some durative verbs, for example, verbs of bodily sensation (to ache, to feel, to hurt, to itch, etc.) and such verbs as to wear, to look (= to seem), to shine and some other can be used either in the Present Indefinite or in the Present Continuous with little difference in meaning. You're looking well, cousin Joan. You look quite happy today. 'I know what you are feeling, Roy,' she said.
'We all feel exactly the same.' The Present Perfect § 15. The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite and the participle of the notional verb (e.g. I have worked.
He has worked, etc.)- (On the formation of the participle see 'Verbs', § 5 and Appendix.) The same auxiliary is used to form the interrogative and negative forms (e.g. Have you worked? Has he worked? It has not worked. They have not worked). In spoken English the contracted forms I've, he's, she's, it's, we've, you've and they've are used in affirmative sentences and haven't and hasn't in negative sentences. The Present Perfect falls within the time sphere of the, present and is not used in narration where reference is made to past events.
It follows from that that the Present Perfect is used in present-timecontexts, i.e. Conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect has three distinct uses. They will be further referred to as Present Perfect I, Present Perfect II and Present Perfect III. 1) Present Perfect I is the Present Perfect proper.
It is used to express an accomplished action which is viewed from the moment of speaking as part of the present situation. Attention in this case is centred on the action itself.
The circumstances under which the action occurred appear unimportant and immaterial at the moment and need not be mentioned. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that. I've had a talk with him. He says he has all the proof he wants. We've bought a racehorse. 'I've spoiled everything,' she said.
His secretary said tactfully: 'I've put off your other appointments for a while.' It should be especially noted that though the action expressed in the Present Perfect is regarded as already accomplished, it belongs to the present-timesphere and is treated as a present action. It becomes obvious from the periphrasis: I've heard the doctor's opinion —I know the doctor's opinion. She's gone off to the woods —She is in the woods.
A similar idea of an accomplished action is also traced in such expressions referring to the present as He is awake. The work is done. The door is locked, etc. Since it is the action itself that the Present Perfect makes important, it is frequently used to open up conversations (newspaper and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them. However, if the conversation (report or letter) continues on the same subject, going into detail, the Present Perfect usually changes to the Past Indefinite, as the latter is used to refer to actions or situations which are definite in the mind of the speaker. Usually (but not necessarily) some concrete circumstances of the action (time, place, cause, purpose, manner, etc.) are mentioned in this case. 'You are all right.
You are coming round. Are you feeling better?' 'I'm quite all right. But what has happened? 'You're in a dug-out,You were buried by a bomb from a trench-mortar.'
But how did I get here?' 'Someone dragged you.
I am afraid some of your men were killed, and several others were wounded.' 'Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, 'Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, Where have you been?' What did you see there?' 'I've been to London 'I saw a little mouse To look at the Queen.' Under her chair.' As is seen from the above examples, the Present Perfect is used to name a new action, whereas the Past Indefinite is used to refer back to a definite action and the attention in this case is often drawn rather to the circumstances attending the action than to the action itself. The functions of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite may be in a way compared with those of the indefinite and the definite articles.
The indefinite article is used when an object is just named (e.g. Glue me a book.
She is a teacher. I have a brother). Likewise the Present Perfect serves to name an accomplished action (see the examples above).
Both the definite article and the Past Indefinite are used when an object or an action, respectively, is definite in the mind of the speaker (e.g. The book is on the table.
The teacher returned the compositions,) As has been said, Present Perfect I is mainly used to introduce a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation.
'I've done bad things,' I said, 'but I don't think I could have done some of the things you've done.' 'You've so often been helpful in the past.' 'I've tried,' said Joseph. We've all been young once, you know.
We've all felt it, Roy. 'I'm afraid I've been horribly boring and talked too much,' she said as she pressed my hand. 'Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both kept your secret,' 'You and your wife have been very good to me. It follows from the rules above that the Present Perfect is not used when there is an indication of past time in the sentence. It is the Past Indefinite that is used in this case because the mention of the definite past time ties the action to the past-timesphere as it were, and it cannot break through to the present.
'Put on your clothes at once and come with me.' 'But what is it? Has something happened?' 'I'm afraid so. Your husband was taken ill this afternoon.'
Poirot, you have no idea of what I have gone through.' 'I know your wife died just over a year ago.' Similarly, it is the Past Indefinite that is used in questions introduced by when. When did you actually arrive? When did you change your mind? The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning with where and how when they refer to the past events. The Present Perfect is not common here because the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind.
'Where did your uncle receive his guests?' 'Right here.' 'How did he get in?' I asked, and Evans said, 'Oh, he has a key.' 'Where is my hat? Where did I leave my hat?' The question Where have you been?
Can be asked of the person who has just come. I'm sorry I'm late' 'Where have you been?' In all other cases it should be Where were you! 'Did the party go off nicely?' 'I don't know.
I wasn't there.' 'Where were you?' In special questions beginning with interrogative words other than those mentioned above (e.g. Who, what, why, what. For and other), both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite are possible. The choice depends on the meaning to be conveyed. If reference is made to an action which is past or definite in the minds of the people speaking, or if there is a change of scene, the Past In.
Definite is used; if reference is made to an action which is still valid as part of the present situation, the Present Perfect should be used. 'What have I done against you?' She burst out defiantly. 'Then why can't we get on?'
'I know she gave him a good scolding.' 'What did he do?'
Looking up at her he said: 'Dorothy's gone to a garden party.' Why haven't you gone too?' Why didn't you speak to my father yourself on the boat? As to general questions, the Present Perfect as well as the Past Indefi nite may be found in them because they may inquire either about new facts which are important for the present or about events that are definite in the mind of the speaker.
In the following example the verb to be is used in the meaning 'to visit', 'to go'. Hence it takes the preposition to after it.
It is noteworthy that to be acquires this meaning only if used in the Present Perfect or the Past Perfect. Renny said: 'He has been to Ireland too' 'Have you been to a symphony concert?' He continued. The combination has/have got may be used as the Present Perfect of the verb to get (which is not very common, though). I don't know what's got into Steven today. He has got into financial difficulties and needs cash. But it is often used as a set phrase which has two different meanings — 'to possess' (a) and 'to be obliged' (b).
A) 'Have you got a telephone?' She looked round the room. 'I don't think we've got any choice,' said Francis, b) 'No' he said loudly, 'there are some risks you've got to take.' 'It doesn't matter what caused it,' said Martin.
'We have got to take the consequences' In this case the time reference also changes — has/have got is the Present Perfect only in form; it actually indicates a present state of things. She is gone is a survival of the old Present Perfect which was formed with certain verbs by means of the auxiliary to be.
In present-dayEnglish it is to be treated as a set phrase meaning 'she is not here any longer'. 2) Present Perfect II serves to express an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it or up to it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Continuous (see 'Verbs', § 18). However, the Present Perfect Non-Continuousis found in the following cases. A) Its use is compulsory with stative verbs (see 'Verbs', §2, 2). I've known the young lady all her life.
I've loved her since she was a child. 'But we've been in conference for two hours,' he said. 'It's time we had a tea break.' B) With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning the Present Perfect is sometimes used instead of the Present Perfect Continuous with little difference in meaning.
'It's a pretty room, isn't it?' 'I've slept in it for fifteen years.' 'I'm glad to meet you,' he said.
'I've waited a long while and began to be afraid I'd not have the opportunity.' He's looked after Miss Gregg for many years now. As to terminative verbs, they can only have the meaning of Present Perfect I and never of Present Perfect II. Since it is often difficult to draw the line between durative and terminative verbs, it is recommended that students of English should use the Present Perfect Continuous with all dynamic verbs to express an action begun in the past and continued into the present. C) The Present Perfect is preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous in negative sentences, when it is the action itself that is completely negated (see also 'Verbs', § 19). 'Shall we sit down a little?
We haven't sat here for ages.' 'I was just having a look at the paper,' he said. 'I haven't read the paper for the last two days.' 'She hasn't written to me for a year,' said Roy. It is noteworthy that Present Perfect II is associated with certain time indications — either the whole period of the duration of the action is marked or its starting point. In the former case we find different time indications.
Some expressions are introduced by the preposition for and sometimes in (e.g. For an hour, for many years, for the last few days, for a long time, for so long, for ages, in years, in a long while, etc.)- Other expressions have no prepositions (e.g. These three years, all this week, all along, so long, all one y s life, etc.). The picture has been mine for years and years. I've felt differently about him for some time. 'Why haven't I seen you all these months?' Said Hankins.
We haven't had any fun in a long while. I've wanted to go to the sea all my life.
The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since or a clause introduced by the conjunction since. 'But, Dinny, when did you meet him?' 'Only ten days ago, but I've seen him every day since.'
The sun has been in the room since the morning. But she has seemed so much better since you started the injections. In the clause introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used to indicate the starting point of an action (see the example above). However, we sometimes find in both parts of such complex sentences two parallel actions which began at the same time in the past and continue into the present. In this case the Present Perfect is used in both clauses, e.g.
I've loved you since I've known you. It should be noted that the indication of time is indispensable to Present Perfect II because otherwise its meaning in most cases would be changed.
It would come to denote an accomplished action which is part of the present situation (for this see Present Perfect I). I've been taught to do it for three years.
I have been taught to do it. But we met him here about a month ago. We haven't heard from him since.
We haven't heard from him. Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past time sphere, the Past Indefinite should be used. It is only if the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it that the Present Perfect is used. 'I have lived like this,' he said, 'for two years, and I can't stand it any more.' 'I teach History at a secondary school. I went to the University here for four years and got a degree.'
The same is true of questions beginning with how long. 'Are you married?' 'How long have you been married?' 'Are you married?' I'm divorced.' 'How long were you married?' 3) Present Perfect III is found in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, as soon as, till and until where it is used to express a future action.
It shows that the action of the subordinate clause will be accomplished before the action of the principal clause (which is usually expressed by the Future Indefinite). This use of the Present Perfect is structurally dependent as it is restricted only to the above mentioned type of clauses. 'You'll find,' said Fred, 'that you'll long for home when you have left it.' As soon as we have had some tea, Ann, we shall go to inspect your house. I'll take you back in my car but not till I've made you some coffee. Sometimes the Present Indefinite is found in this type of clauses in the same meaning as the Present Perfect.
The choice of the form depends on the lexical meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the Present Perfect is necessary. When you have had your tea, we'll see about it. I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I have tried it. With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible, Cf.
He says when he retires he'll grow roses. When I've finished this I must go and put the baby to bed. Mother will stay at home until we return. 'Your mother wouldn't like me.' 'You can't possibly say that until you've met her.' The Present Perfect Continuous § 17.
The Present Perfect Continuous is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Perfect and the ing-formof the notional verb (e.g. I have been working. He has been working, etc.). On the formation of the ing-form see 'Verbs', § 11.) In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject (e.g.
Have you been working? Has she been working?, etc.). In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary (e.g. We have not been working. They have not been working, etc.). In spoken English the contracted forms I've, he's, she's, it's, we've, you've and they've are used in affirmative sentences and hasn't and haven't in negative sentences.
The Present Perfect Continuous falls within the time sphere of the present. Hence it is not used in narration where reference is made to past events. It is found in present-timecontexts, i.e. Conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect Continuous has two uses which will be further referred to as Present Perfect Continuous I and Present Perfect Continuous II.
1) Present Perfect Continuous I serves to express an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it or up to it. In this meaning it is parallel to Present Perfect II and may be used with the same indications of time as described in 'Verbs', § 16. He said he was in town and wanted to see me. That was a couple of hours ago and I have been waiting ever since.
'We've been staying here nearly a week. 'I hope you are not thinking of leaving.' 'Her ladyship is waiting to see you and Sergeant Cuff,', he said. 'How long has she been waiting?' I wish you'd go, Chris! We've been getting on each other's nerves lately. 'I have been thinking about it for a long time,' said Erik frankly.
I've been sitting here quite a while. He's your elder brother.
But you are the one who looks after him. You've been making excuses for him all your life. Present Perfect Continuous I may be used with both durative and terminative verbs.
As has been said, Present Perfect II can also be used in this meaning with durative verbs, though it is less common (see also 'Verbs', § 16, 2) and it is never used with terminative verbs. It stands to reason that the Present Perfect Continuous is not common with stative verbs. 2) Present Perfect Continuous II serves to express an action which was in progress quite recently and which in one way or another affects the present situation, explains or gives reasons for the state of things at the present moment. The precise time limits of the action (i.e. Its beginning and its end) are not specified. This use of the Present Perfect Continuous seems to be prevailing over its use described under I. Besides, in this meaning the Present Perfect Continuous is not parallel to Present Perfect II.
'Your shoes are wet.' 'I've been walking in the rain.' She said: 'I've been talking to your boy-friend,Adeline, and I like him.' She's been washing her hair, but it may be dry now. He began abruptly: 'I've been thinking about what you told me.'
Don't tell your mother what I've been saying. He clasped the massive woollen underwear against his chest.
'Just what I need,' he declared. 'The moths have been eating mine.' What have you been doing? Then Phil called: 'I'll be right down. I've been shutting the windows.' The Present Perfect Continuous in this case is, as a rule, not associated with any indications of time (see the examples above). It is only occasionally found with indications of a recent period of time or with the adverb just.
Augustus has been dining with us tonight. I have been discussing it with Arabella this evening. I've just been having such a delightful chat with Margaret. In negative sentences the Present Perfect Continuous is not common. Present Perfect II is preferred in this case (for examples see 'Verbs', § 16, 2c). However, the Present Perfect Continuous is also found in negative sentences but in this case the negation does not refer to the action itself but to the circumstances attending the action.
'We don't wish to overtire the boys.' 'A walk would only do them good,' Jenny said. 'They haven't been sleeping at all well recently.'
(which means that they have been sleeping but their sleep has not been sound enough) I'm sorry I'm late. I hope you have not been waiting for me. (which means that I know you have been waiting but I hope it is not for me) § 20. Present Perfect Continuous I and particularly Present Perfect Continuous II are sometimes found with stative verbs. 'There's one thing I've been meaning to ask you, Miles,' Fred said one afternoon. 'Hello,' she said. 'I'm glad you're having lunch here.
I've been wanting to talk to you.' I've been noticing these changes in you ever since you got that university degree. A little break like this is what she's been needing all these years. 'Do you know Mr Nesfield?' We have been seeing him every day.' Note the following sentence patterns: a) He has been reading since he came.
B) He has been reading since he has been working in the library. In the first pattern the action in the subordinate clause intro- duced by since is expressed by the Past Indefinite and serves to indicate only the starting point of the action in the principal clause. In the second pattern the action of the subordinate clause is parallel to that of the principal clause as they both began at the same time in the past and continue into the moment of speaking. In this case the Present Perfect Continuous is used.in both clauses (or Present Perfect II, with stative verbs). The Past Indefinite § 22. The Past Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. (On the formation of the Past Indefinite see 'Verbs', § ft 5 and Appendix.) But the interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the Past Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g.
Did you work? We did not work. She did not work). In spoken English the contracted form didn't is used in negative sentences. The Past Indefinite may have a special form which is used for emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analytically, by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. The auxiliary is heavily stressed in this case (e.g.
I 'did insist on it. He 'did insist on it). The Past Indefinite is commonly used to express a past action. It may be found in present-timecontexts as well as in pasttime contexts. The Past Indefinite is used in the following cases: 1) To express a single action which took place in the past. The time of the action is often indicated. It is usually an indication of the past time.
Yet the Past Indefinite may also be found with such adverbial modifiers of time as this morning, today, tonight, etc. (For details see also 'Verbs', § 16, 1.) e.g. Things came to a crisis in July. My mother first heard of him when I was a mere child. I only met her six months ago. I had a letter from Willy yesterday.
Why, I saw the announcement in the paper this morning. The time of the action may be implied in the situation through the mention of the place of the action or other attending circumstances. I ate turnips in Germany. Did you belong to any society at the University? 'What a lot you know,' said Miss Marple, 'about the private lives of film stars. Did you learn it all in California?'